Tire Manufacturing (except Retreading) — U.S. Industry Primer

NAICS 2022 code 326211. A general-investor guide to the U.S. new-tire manufacturing industry — how it is built, how owners make money, and the public and private ways to get exposure.

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1. Overview

Tire manufacturing is the business of making new tires — for passenger cars, light and heavy trucks, buses, farm and construction equipment, and aircraft — from rubber, steel, textiles, and industrial chemicals. It sits where a global commodity supply chain (natural and synthetic rubber, oil-derived inputs) meets a capital-intensive, high-volume factory floor.

Why an investor should care: tires are a consumable. Unlike the car itself, a tire wears out on a schedule and must be replaced whether or not anyone is buying new vehicles. That gives the industry an unusually stable replacement (aftermarket) demand base riding on top of a more cyclical stream of tires sold to automakers. Roughly 85% of tires shipped in the U.S. go into replacement rather than onto new vehicles — in 2025, USTMA reported 285.7 million replacement shipments versus 52.1 million OE shipments [4]. The trade-off is thin margins, heavy exposure to rubber and energy prices, and intense competition from low-cost imports.

Ways in:

• Public markets: Only one major tiremaker — The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company — is headquartered and listed in the U.S. [7]. A second U.S.-listed name, Titan International, focuses on off-road and agricultural tires [9]. Most global majors that operate large U.S. factories are listed on foreign exchanges.
• Private / other: A large share of U.S. tire plants are U.S. operations of foreign-owned firms (Bridgestone, Michelin, Continental, Hankook and others). Specialty and retread businesses (retreading is a separate industry, see §2) are largely private.

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2. What it is & how it's structured

Scope (what NAICS 326211 covers): Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing new pneumatic (air-filled) and solid tires, including passenger, truck, bus, off-the-road, aircraft, and specialty tires, plus inner tubes [1]. These are large, purpose-built factories that mix rubber compounds, build "green" (uncured) tires from layered components, and cure them under heat and pressure.

The production process is closer to engineered composite manufacturing than simple rubber molding. Manufacturers formulate different compounds from natural and synthetic rubber, carbon black, silica, oils, antioxidants, pigments, and other additives; form treads, sidewalls, liners, belts, plies, and steel-wire beads; assemble these into an uncured "green" tire; and vulcanize it under heat and pressure. USTMA says a tire may contain as many as 200 raw materials. Passenger and light-truck tires are typically cured above 300°F for 12–15 minutes, after which they undergo visual, X-ray, destructive, wheel, or road testing [18].

What it explicitly excludes — and the adjacent NAICS codes:

• Tire Retreading (NAICS 326212) — rebuilding worn tire casings with new tread. The "except Retreading" in this industry's name carves it out; it is a separate, more fragmented business concentrated in commercial trucking.
• Tire Dealers / retail (NAICS 441330) — the stores and service bays that sell and install tires.
• Tire and Tube Merchant Wholesalers (NAICS 423130) — distribution.
• Synthetic Rubber Manufacturing (NAICS 325212) and carbon black / chemical inputs — the upstream suppliers.

Keep this boundary in mind: headline "U.S. tire industry" figures that reach $170B+ in output and ~800,000 jobs bundle in retail, distribution, retreading, and supplier activity [16]. The manufacturing core measured by 326211 is far smaller (see §3).

Ownership mix: This is an oligopoly of global manufacturers plus a competitive fringe. A handful of multinationals — Goodyear (U.S.), Bridgestone (Japan), Michelin (France), Continental (Germany), Pirelli (Italy), and the large Korean and Japanese producers (Hankook, Sumitomo/Falken, Yokohama, Toyo) — own most U.S. capacity. The U.S. Tire Manufacturers Association's 11 members — Bridgestone, Continental, Giti, Goodyear, Hankook, Kumho, Michelin, Nokian, Pirelli, Toyo, and Yokohama — operate 55 "tire-related" manufacturing facilities across 16 states [19]. Ownership is overwhelmingly corporate and foreign-affiliated; there is essentially no meaningful cottage or individual-operator segment, because a modern greenfield tire plant costs well over $1 billion to build [14].

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3. How big it is (federal figures)

U.S. Census and SBA data for NAICS 326211:

Concentration: The four largest firms account for 64% of industry revenue, the top eight for 87.4%, and the top twenty for 97% [2]. The Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (a standard concentration measure) sits at ~1,279 [2] — just below the federal "moderately concentrated" line of 1,500, reflecting that while a few global majors dominate, no single firm holds a runaway share and ~72 firms compete at the edges.

Cost structure (EPA 2021 data): An EPA compilation of Census manufacturing data shows materials as the largest production cost: approximately $8.4 billion in raw-material costs, $3.2 billion in labor, $1.4 billion in other operating expense, and $941 million in capital expenditures (of which $859 million was machinery and equipment) [20].

Scope caveats (not a small-operator undercount): Unlike industries dominated by tiny or gig operators, 326211 is fully captured by federal business statistics — it is a capital-heavy sector with large plants and few firms, so there is little to undercount. Two other cautions matter more:

1. Production is not consumption. The ~$21B of domestic output understates what Americans buy, because a large share of tires sold here are imported (see §6). U.S. tire shipments (domestic-made plus imported by U.S. sellers) reached a record 337.3 million units in 2024; 2025 came in at 336.3 million, with 2026 forecast at ~338.9 million [4].
2. Don't confuse the manufacturing core with the ecosystem. The 52,211 manufacturing jobs here are a fraction of the ~290,000 people industry groups count across member companies and hundreds of thousands more in dealers and suppliers [16].

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4. The investable universe

U.S.-listed pure-plays (tickers reserved for this and §10):

Goodyear is the only major full-line tiremaker headquartered in the U.S. and runs the largest domestic manufacturing footprint (well over a dozen U.S. tire and related plants) [7]. It bought Cooper Tire in 2021 for roughly $2.5–3.1 billion, consolidating the U.S.-based field to essentially one public champion [7]. Titan is a smaller, off-highway specialist that acquired the Carlstar Group (Carlisle-brand specialty tires) in early 2024 [9].

Global majors that operate large U.S. plants but list abroad (exposure via foreign exchanges or ADRs):

Private / other owners: Kumho (Georgia), and numerous specialty and private-label makers. Retreading and most tire retail are separate, largely private industries. Bottom line: direct U.S.-listed exposure is concentrated in Goodyear (broad) and Titan (off-road niche); everything else requires foreign equities or the broader auto-parts complex.

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5. How the money works

Tire manufacturing is a volume × price/mix minus input-cost business, and the economics are those of heavy manufacturing:

• Capacity utilization. Plants carry high fixed costs (curing presses, buildings, labor). Owners must run them hot to spread those costs; utilization swings drop straight to the bottom line, which is why idle or under-loaded plants get closed. Goodyear explicitly states that operating income changes disproportionately with sales and that lower production causes under-absorption of factory costs [7].
• Raw materials drive the margin. Roughly half of a tire is rubber — synthetic rubber makes up 60–70% of the rubber content, the rest natural rubber — plus carbon black, steel cord, textiles and chemicals [17]. Making one metric ton of passenger tire takes on the order of 0.20 t natural rubber, 0.27 t synthetic rubber and 0.24 t carbon black [17]. Goodyear reports that synthetic rubber represented approximately half of the rubber it consumed in 2025 and that roughly two-thirds of its raw materials were petroleum-based [7]. Natural rubber is a volatile commodity — the U.S. depends entirely on imports, bringing in almost $1.5 billion in 2023, with Indonesia (47%), Thailand (27%), and Côte d'Ivoire (11%) as leading suppliers [22]. When both natural and synthetic rubber rise together, makers cannot substitute one for the other and margins get squeezed until they can raise prices [23].
• Price and mix are the profit lever. Bigger rim diameters (18-inch and up), performance, all-season, all-terrain and EV-specific tires carry materially higher prices and margins than entry-level sizes. A mix shift toward large-rim and premium fitments is a structural tailwind; trading down to cheap imports is the headwind. During 2025, Goodyear attributed a $443 million worldwide earnings headwind to higher raw materials and a $402 million headwind to conversion costs, partly offset by $465 million of price/mix improvement and restructuring savings [7].
• Replacement vs. original equipment (OE). Tires sold to automakers (OE) are lower-margin and competitively bid, but they seed brand loyalty — drivers often re-buy the fitment they had. Replacement tires, roughly 85% of shipments, are higher-margin and far steadier because they track miles driven, not new-car sales [4]. Goodyear's OE sales were approximately 19% of company revenue in 2025 [7]. The best businesses use OE to feed a rich replacement stream.
• What's left. After raw materials, labor, energy and freight, tire-segment operating margins are historically thin — mid-single digits — which is why Goodyear's turnaround plan explicitly targets lifting margin from ~5% toward ~10% [7]. Goodyear's Americas segment earned a 6.8% operating margin in 2025, down from 8.5% in 2024 [7]. Legacy pension and post-retirement costs weigh on the older U.S. players.

In short: owners make money by keeping plants full, buying rubber and oil-linked inputs well, pushing mix toward premium large-rim tires, and converting factory-gate volume into loyal aftermarket replacement demand.

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6. What drives demand

• Miles driven (VMT). Americans drove 3.294 trillion miles in 2024, up from 3.247 trillion in 2023; tread wears with use, creating a steady replacement baseline largely independent of the economy [10]. FHWA's long-term forecast projects average annual VMT growth of only 0.6% from 2023 through 2053, pointing to a mature replacement market — recurring, but unlikely to grow rapidly from miles alone [24].
• The aging vehicle fleet. The average U.S. light vehicle is now about 12.5 years old [5]. Older cars mean more owners past their original tires and into the (higher-margin) replacement channel.
• New-vehicle production. OE demand rises and falls with automaker output — the cyclical part of the business. Interest rates, consumer credit, employment, tariffs, fuel prices, strikes, semiconductor or component shortages, and OEM inventory decisions all affect vehicle builds.
• Electric vehicles. EVs are heavier (battery mass) and deliver instant torque, so their tires wear roughly 20% faster and are replaced perhaps 30% sooner than on comparable gas cars — a volume tailwind, plus demand for specialized, higher-value EV tires [11]. Electrification changes tire specifications more than it changes the need for tires: EV weight, immediate torque, range sensitivity, and lower powertrain noise increase the importance of load capacity, wear, rolling resistance, and tire-generated noise [7].
• Freight and industrial activity. Commercial truck/bus and off-road (farm, mining, construction) tire demand tracks trucking tonnage, crop and construction cycles.
• Weather and seasonality. Snow, rain and regional winter-tire mandates shift both volume and mix.

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7. Regulation

Tire manufacturing is regulated mainly on safety, consumer information, and environmental grounds:

• NHTSA safety standards. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration sets Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards for tires and runs the Uniform Tire Quality Grading (UTQG) system (49 CFR 575.104), which grades treadwear, traction and temperature resistance printed on every passenger-tire sidewall [12]. Manufacturers self-certify compliance with applicable standards; NHTSA does not preapprove each product [25]. The TREAD Act era added tire-pressure monitoring and recall/early-warning reporting duties, with tire-identification records supporting recalls [26].
• Fuel-efficiency labeling. NHTSA's tire fuel-efficiency consumer-information program rates rolling resistance and wet traction [12].
• 6PPD / 6PPD-quinone (the emerging swing factor). 6PPD is an anti-degradant that keeps tires from cracking; its road-runoff breakdown product, 6PPD-quinone, is acutely toxic to coho salmon. The EPA opened Toxic Substances Control Act rulemaking (advance notice 2024, comments into 2025) and California's DTSC has listed 6PPD tires as a "priority product," forcing makers to seek alternatives [13]. EPA is researching effects, alternatives, and stormwater mitigation [27][28]. The direction and cost of future federal or state requirements are not yet established. A restriction would require reformulating a core chemistry across the industry — a potential cost and R&D event to watch.
• Air emissions (NESHAP). EPA's longstanding rubber-tire National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants remains relevant. Stricter amendments finalized in November 2024 were revoked under the Congressional Review Act after a resolution was signed in May 2025 and consequently have no legal or enforceable effect [29].
• Trade remedies (see §9). Antidumping and countervailing duties are, in practice, one of the most consequential "regulations" for domestic economics.
• Plant-level EPA/OSHA. Air emissions, wastewater, and worker-safety rules apply to the factories themselves.

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8. Competitive dynamics & consolidation

• A global oligopoly with a low-cost fringe. The top four firms make ~64% of U.S. output and the top eight ~87% [2]; Bridgestone, Michelin and Goodyear together hold north of 60% of the U.S. market by brand [5]. Below them, dozens of Asian and value brands compete on price.
• Consolidation. Goodyear's 2021 purchase of Cooper Tire removed the last sizeable independent U.S.-based maker [7]; Titan's 2024 Carlstar deal rolled up specialty off-road brands [9]. Scale, brand and distribution reach are the moats.
• Import competition is the defining battle. Imports supply up to ~75% of the U.S. replacement passenger-tire market and 80%+ of the truck/bus aftermarket; stripping out "captive" imports (branded tires U.S. majors make in their own foreign plants), the true independent-import share is roughly 40% [15]. U.S. tire imports were worth about $20 billion in 2024 [15], led by Thailand, Vietnam and Mexico [15].
• China trade orders remain in place. In June 2026, the USITC determined that removing the existing passenger and light-truck tire orders on China would likely cause renewed material injury, so the orders remain in place [30].
• Reshoring / capacity investment. Rather than exit, foreign majors are building U.S. capacity behind the tariff wall — Hankook's $1.6B Clarksville, TN expansion, Bridgestone's $550M Warren County, TN upgrade, and Michelin's North American commitments; the industry has pledged $6.5B+ in recent capital projects [14].
• Plant competitiveness is a material asset risk. Old plants can require substantial maintenance and modernization but still lack efficient product mix, automation, or scale. Sumitomo Rubber's decision to end U.S. tire production and serve North America with imports illustrates that a recognized brand and prior capital investment do not guarantee a viable domestic plant [21].

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9. Risks

• Input-cost volatility. Natural rubber, oil-linked synthetic rubber and carbon black can move fast and together, compressing margins before price increases catch up [23]. The U.S. depends entirely on imported natural rubber, concentrated in Southeast Asia [22].
• Import undercutting. Low-cost imports cap pricing power in the replacement market and can grab share whenever duties lapse or supply chains re-route [15].
• Trade-policy whiplash. The business is unusually exposed to antidumping/countervailing duties (e.g., the December 2024 truck-and-bus-tire order on Thailand, with rates up to ~48%) and to broad tariff swings — a double-edged sword that protects U.S. plants but raises costs and invites retaliation [8][15]. Goodyear's 2026 outlook forecast an approximately $300 million annualized tariff cost based on then-current rates [7].
• Cyclicality of OE and freight. Auto-production downturns and soft trucking markets hit the OE and commercial segments hardest. Goodyear warns that lower automotive production and lower tire demand can cause under-absorbed fixed costs [7].
• 6PPD and environmental regulation. A restriction on 6PPD would force reformulation of a safety-critical chemistry industry-wide [13]; tire-wear microplastics are drawing broader scrutiny.
• Capital intensity and legacy costs. Plants are expensive to build and hard to close; older U.S. producers carry pension/retiree obligations and unionized labor cost structures. At the end of 2025, Goodyear had approximately 63,000 global employees, of whom about 36,000 were covered by collective-bargaining agreements [7].
• Thin margins. With segment margins historically mid-single-digit, there is little cushion for shocks [7].
• Product liability. Tires are regulated motor-vehicle equipment. A defect can produce recalls, litigation, customer loss, and long-lasting brand damage [25][26].

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10. How to invest & the outlook

Public-market routes

• Goodyear (NASDAQ: GT) — the direct, liquid U.S. bet, but a turnaround story: the "Goodyear Forward" plan is selling non-core units (chemicals, the Dunlop brand, off-road business) to cut debt and roughly double segment margin toward ~10% by end-2025 [7]. It carries global operations, leverage, restructuring, retail/service, pension, and currency exposure. Reward hinges on execution and stable rubber prices.
• Titan International (NYSE: TWI) — a smaller-cap, off-road/agricultural cyclical; exposure to farm, mining, construction, trailers, and outdoor-power equipment demand more than passenger tires [9].
• Foreign majors — Bridgestone (Tokyo 5108), Michelin (Paris ML), Continental (Frankfurt CON / OTC ADR), Pirelli (Milan PIRC), Hankook (Korea) give diversified, often better-margin exposure with large U.S. operations, via foreign exchanges or ADRs [5][14]. These are not clean U.S.-NAICS exposures: investors receive global manufacturing, currency, geographic, and — in Continental's case — business-portfolio exposure.
• Indirect — broad auto-parts/industrials ETFs and funds hold these names without single-stock risk.

Because reported profits are thin and rubber-price-sensitive, investors typically watch replacement-tire volumes, price/mix (large-rim share), raw-material costs, and segment operating margin more than headline revenue.

Private routes Direct private ownership of new-tire manufacturing is largely closed — capacity is held by multinationals. Practical private exposure runs through adjacent, more fragmented links: tire retail and installation chains (NAICS 441330), retreading operations (326212, common in commercial trucking), distribution/wholesale, and specialty or private-label makers — many of which are private-equity or family-owned and occasionally trade. Titan's acquisition of Carlstar illustrates a path from privately held specialty tires and wheels into a public strategic owner [9].

Private diligence should center on plant utilization by line, age and replacement cost of mixers and curing presses, SKU and mold complexity, customer and OE-platform concentration, branded versus private-label mix, raw-material pass-through provisions, dealer relationships, inventory age, warranty and recall history, union and pension obligations, environmental liabilities, and tariff exposure.

Near-term outlook (forward-looking) The demand backdrop is durable: a fleet averaging ~12.5 years, 3.3-trillion-plus miles driven, and EVs that eat tires faster all support the steady replacement base [4][5][11]. The swing factors are cyclical and policy-driven — the direction of rubber and oil prices, how aggressively tariffs and antidumping duties reshape import flows (and whether foreign makers keep reshoring U.S. capacity), and the trajectory of 6PPD regulation. Expect low-single-digit unit growth with profitability set less by volume than by input costs, mix, and trade policy. For U.S.-listed investors, the concentrated reality is stark: it is largely a bet on Goodyear's margin turnaround, a niche bet on Titan, or a step offshore to the global majors.

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Commonly misunderstood points

• The frequently cited USTMA "$259.5 billion industry footprint" is not tire-manufacturer revenue — it includes manufacturing, distribution, and retailing, with associated employment counting direct, supplier, and induced jobs. It should not be compared with Census's ~$21 billion NAICS manufacturer-revenue estimate [4][2].
• USTMA's 336 million annual shipments are U.S. market shipments, not tires produced in U.S. factories — imports are economically central.
• "Tire manufacturing" does not include the economically large dealership, installation, and retreading ecosystems.
• This is not simply a natural-rubber business: Goodyear's disclosures show major exposure to synthetic rubber, carbon black, steel, fabric, petrochemicals, energy, and freight [7].
• EV adoption is not straightforward substitution away from tires — it changes performance requirements and potentially replacement rates, while the enduring demand variable remains vehicle utilization rather than propulsion technology alone.

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Sources

1. U.S. Census Bureau, County Business Patterns 2023 (NAICS 326211: employment, establishments, payroll). https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/cbp.html
2. U.S. Census Bureau, 2022 Annual Business Survey / Economic Census — Industry & Concentration Statistics (NAICS 326211: receipts, firms, CR4/CR8/CR20/CR50, HHI). https://data.census.gov/table/ABSCS2022.AB00MYCSA01C?codeset=naics~326211&g=010XX00US
3. U.S. Small Business Administration, Table of Size Standards, 2023 (NAICS 326211 = 1,500 employees). https://www.sba.gov/document/support-table-size-standards
4. U.S. Tire Manufacturers Association, USTMA Tire Shipment Forecasts (2024 record 337.3M units; 2025 actual 336.3M; 2026 outlook 338.9M), February 2026. https://www.ustires.org/newsroom/ustma-february-2026-forecast
5. Mordor Intelligence, United States Tire Market Size, Share & Trends, 2025 (market size, brand shares, fleet age, plant clusters). https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/united-states-tire-market
6. Openbrand, 2025 U.S. Tire Market Share & Retail Sales Trends, 2025. https://openbrand.com/newsroom/blog/tire-market-top-brands-retailers-market-share-retail-sales-data-trends
7. The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company, 2025 Form 10-K (Americas segment sales, margin, Goodyear Forward plan, Cooper acquisition, raw-material exposure, labor). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/42582/000162828026006708/gt-20251231.htm
8. U.S. Federal Register, Truck and Bus Tires From Thailand: Antidumping Duty Order, 2024. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2024/12/17/2024-29606/truck-and-bus-tires-from-thailand-antidumping-duty-order
9. Titan International, Inc., 2025 Form 10-K (off-road tires, Carlstar acquisition, 2025 revenue). https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/899751/000089975126000007/twi-20251231.htm
10. Federal Highway Administration, Highway Statistics 2024 (VMT: 3.294 trillion in 2024). https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/statistics/2024/vm1.cfm
11. Recharged / Newsweek, EV Tire Wear and Replacement Intervals (EV wear ~20–30% faster), 2024–2025. https://recharged.com/articles/do-ev-tires-wear-faster
12. Wikipedia, Uniform Tire Quality Grading, and NHTSA TireWise (UTQG, fuel-efficiency labeling), 2024. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Tire_Quality_Grading
13. U.S. EPA, Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking on 6PPD and 6PPD-quinone (2024–2025), and California DTSC, Priority Product: Motor Vehicle Tires Containing 6PPD. https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-issues-advance-notice-proposed-rulemaking-protect-salmon-chemical-used-rubber
14. Tire Business / Modern Tire Dealer, Tire Makers Commit $6.5B+ to Capital Projects and Hankook Tire press release ($1.6B Clarksville, TN; Bridgestone $550M; Michelin $325M), 2024–2025. https://www.tirebusiness.com/global-tire-report/tire-makers-commit-more-65b-capital-projects
15. USImportData / Tire Business, U.S. Tire Import Data 2024–2025 (import value ~$20B; Thailand/Vietnam/Mexico; ~75% replacement share, ~40% true import share). https://www.usimportdata.com/blogs/us-tyre-import-data-2025-top-tyre-importers-usa-and-imports-by-country
16. U.S. Tire Manufacturers Association, Economic Impact of the U.S. Tire Manufacturing Industry, 2024. https://www.ustires.org/economic-impact
17. IMARC Group, Tire Economics: A Cost Modeling Framework, and Wikipedia, Tire manufacturing (raw-material composition), 2024. https://www.imarcgroup.com/insight/tire-economics-a-cost-modeling-framework-for-manufacturing-efficiency
18. U.S. Tire Manufacturers Association, How a Tire Is Made (manufacturing process, 200 raw materials). https://www.ustires.org/tires-101/how-tire-made
19. U.S. Tire Manufacturers Association, Our Members (11 member companies, 55 facilities, 16 states). https://www.ustires.org/about-us/our-members
20. U.S. EPA, Economic Impact Analysis for Rubber Tire Manufacturing (2021 Census data: cost structure). https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P101DBLU.TXT
21. Sumitomo Rubber Industries, Q3 2024 Financial Report Discussion (U.S. production exit). https://www.srigroup.co.jp/english/ir/library/financial-report/dvql4p000000q84b-att/scripts_2024_q3_en.pdf
22. USDA Climate Hubs, The Potential of Guayule for Commercial Rubber Production in the Southwest (U.S. natural rubber import dependence: $1.5B in 2023; Indonesia 47%, Thailand 27%, Côte d'Ivoire 11%). https://www.climatehubs.usda.gov/hubs/southwest/topic/potential-guayule-commercial-rubber-production-southwest
23. IMARC Group / Procurement Resource, Natural & Synthetic Rubber Price Trends 2024–2025 (oil-linked input costs, margin squeeze). https://www.procurementresource.com/news-and-articles/natural-rubber-prices-rise-global-supply-deficit-2026
24. Federal Highway Administration, 2025 VMT Forecast Summary (long-term 0.6% annual growth projection). https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/tables/vmt/vmt_forecast_sum.cfm
25. NHTSA, Self-Certification of Motor Vehicle Equipment (manufacturers self-certify FMVSS compliance). https://www.nhtsa.gov/interpretations/aiam5168
26. NHTSA, Tire Identification and Recordkeeping Requirements. https://www.nhtsa.gov/interpretations/09-007991-139
27. U.S. EPA, Where the Rubber Meets the Road: EPA Researchers Study Environmental and Health Impacts of Tires. https://www.epa.gov/sciencematters/where-rubber-meets-road-epa-researchers-study-environmental-and-health-impacts-tires
28. U.S. EPA, FY25–28 Action Plan for 6PPD and 6PPD-quinone. https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2024-11/epa-fy25-28-action-plan-for-6ppd-and-6ppd-quinone.pdf
29. U.S. EPA, Rubber Tire Manufacturing NESHAP (November 2024 amendments revoked under CRA, May 2025). https://www.epa.gov/stationary-sources-air-pollution/rubber-tire-manufacturing-national-emission-standards-hazardous
30. U.S. International Trade Commission, Passenger Vehicle and Light Truck Tires From China: Continuation of Antidumping and Countervailing Duty Orders, June 2026. https://www.usitc.gov/press_room/news_release/2026/er0623_68791.htm