Other Sound Recording Industries (U.S.) — NAICS 512290

A Histometrics industry primer for public-market and private investors.

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1. Overview

"Other Sound Recording Industries" is the catch-all bucket of the U.S. sound-recording sector under the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) — the U.S. government's standard scheme for grouping businesses. Code 512290 covers the sound-recording services that are not record labels, music publishers, or recording studios: firms that license background music to stores, restaurants, gyms and offices; license "production music" (pre-made library tracks) to film, TV, advertising and social-media creators; produce syndicated radio programming; record meetings and conferences; and record books onto audio as a for-hire service.[1][2]

Why it matters to an investor: by the federal numbers this is a small, fragmented residual category — roughly $889 million in annual receipts across 468 firms.[5] But it sits inside two large, fast-growing demand streams. U.S. recorded music generated $17.7 billion at retail in 2024, and U.S. audiobook sales reached $2.22 billion, up 13% year over year.[7][8] The genuinely attractive money in 512290 is recurring, high-margin licensing — a background-music subscription base or a production-music library that earns fees over and over from a catalog built once — as opposed to the labor-driven, commoditized for-hire recording work that makes up most of the firm count.

The industry has two very different investment profiles:

• Public shares offer only partial, indirect exposure — a thin slice inside larger commercial-music, podcast, radio, streaming, and music-rights companies. There is no clean U.S.-listed pure play.
• Private investors can buy operating companies, provide growth or acquisition capital, back private-equity-owned platforms, or acquire music and audio rights. The real specialists — Mood Media in background music, Epidemic Sound in production music, RBMedia in audiobooks — are privately held, mostly by private-equity (PE) firms.

The questions that decide value here are customer retention, royalty burden, catalog ownership, staff and equipment utilization, advertising exposure, and cash conversion — not factory capacity or physical inventory.

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2. What it is and how it's structured

Scope. NAICS 512290 comprises establishments primarily engaged in providing sound-recording services except record production, distribution, music publishing, and studio recording. Census index terms and illustrative examples include:[1][2]

• Background/foreground music services (in-store, on-hold, "Muzak-style" commercial audio)
• Stock-music and stock-sound-library (production music) services
• Prerecorded music program distribution
• Producers of taped/syndicated radio programs (except independent producers)
• Recording of books onto audio (except by the publisher)
• Audio recording of meetings, seminars, and conferences

What it explicitly excludes — and where those activities are classified instead:[1]

• Music publishing (owning/administering song copyrights) → NAICS 512230
• Sound recording studios (studios recording for hire) → NAICS 512240
• Record production and distribution (labels making and releasing recordings) → NAICS 512250
• Independent artists, writers, and performers → NAICS 711510
• Mass duplication of recorded products → NAICS 334614
• Streaming / internet music distribution → the newer content codes (e.g., NAICS 516210), not here

A structural note: in the 2022 NAICS revision, two older label codes — Record Production (512210) and Integrated Record Production/Distribution (512220) — were merged into a single new code, 512250 (Record Production and Distribution). Code 512290 itself was carried over essentially unchanged.[3] So the "everything else" bucket is deliberately narrow: it holds what is left after labels, publishers, and studios are carved out. A company may operate across several of these codes, but its label, publishing, studio, radio, or streaming revenue should not automatically be counted as 512290 revenue.

Ownership mix. By count the industry is overwhelmingly small businesses: 468 firms operating 733 establishments, an average of roughly $1.9 million in receipts per firm.[4][5] The U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA) size standard for the code is $22.5 million in average annual receipts — a government-contracting threshold, not a measure of the typical operator, but one that essentially every firm in 512290 clears as a "small business."[6] Yet the top of the segment is concentrated in private equity and large media conglomerates: PE firms own the leading background-music and audiobook platforms, and the two dominant U.S. music groups jointly own the world's largest production-music library.[14][17][18]

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3. How big it is

Histometrics' federal ground-truth figures for NAICS 512290:

Two clean, same-survey derivations: about $1.9 million of receipts per firm (2022 basis), and payroll of roughly $79,000 per employee (2023 basis) — a small but relatively well-paid, catalog-and-licensing-driven workforce rather than a large-headcount one. Note that receipts (2022 Economic Census) and payroll (2023 County Business Patterns, or CBP) come from different surveys and years, so the two dollar figures should not be compared directly.[4][5]

The undercount caveat — important here. These federal numbers materially understate the economic activity this category relates to, for three reasons:

1. It is a residual code by design. The big dollars in "sound recording" sit in the sibling codes it excludes — labels (512250), music publishers (512230), studios (512240) — and in streaming platforms classified elsewhere (516210). The $17.7 billion recorded-music market and the $2.22 billion audiobook market are counted mostly outside 512290.[7][8]
2. Nonemployer and tiny operators. CBP counts only employer establishments. Much of the for-hire recording of events, freelance audiobook narration, and one-person production-music work is done by nonemployer sole proprietors and freelancers who never appear in the 733-establishment count.[4]
3. In-house, institutional, offshore, and platform revenue. Audio work done inside universities, public broadcasters, and government sits outside the count, and several of the largest consumer-facing players are foreign or platform-based (Epidemic Sound is Swedish), booking revenue outside U.S. establishment statistics.[13]

Read the $889 million as the measured floor of a small niche, not the size of the markets these firms actually compete in.

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4. The investable universe

There is no pure-play U.S.-listed company in NAICS 512290. The tables below show where public investors get partial, indirect exposure, and who actually owns the specialist businesses. (This is the first section where tickers and financials appear; treat them as read-throughs, not endorsements.)

Public companies with partial exposure

In every case the 512290 activity is a small slice of a much larger business. The public market offers exposure to pieces of the value chain, not a precise way to buy the U.S. industry.

Major private operators and owners

The pattern is clear: at the top, this is a private-equity and conglomerate-owned industry, not a public-equity one — and ownership, debt, segment reporting, and customer economics are often unavailable in public filings.

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5. How the money works

The central economic distinction is between recurring platform/licensing revenue and labor-intensive project work.

Three ways this plays out:

1. Recurring subscription/licensing — the high-margin core. Background-music providers sell a per-location monthly subscription; the store, restaurant, gym, or bank pays a recurring fee for streamed, license-cleared music (often bundled with signage, on-hold messaging, and hardware). The key metrics are subscriber locations × average revenue per location (ARPU) and churn; Mood Media's 500,000-plus locations are the textbook example.[14] Production-music libraries sell per-track sync licenses or, increasingly, flat subscriptions aimed at YouTube/TikTok creators. Once a track exists, the marginal cost of licensing it again is near zero, so gross margins on a well-used catalog are high — Epidemic Sound's swing to ~$13.9M of EBITDA on $181.6M of revenue in 2024 shows the operating leverage of the catalog model.[11]

2. Royalties — the catalog as a yield asset. Production music earns not only the upfront sync fee but ongoing performance royalties each time the finished video/program is broadcast or streamed, collected through performing-rights organizations. The catalog therefore behaves like an income-producing IP asset — which is why major labels and PE firms buy and hold these libraries.

3. Per-project service fees — labor-driven, lower margin. For-hire recording of meetings, seminars, live events, or audiobook narration is billed per project or per finished hour. Economics turn on billable utilization of engineers, narrators, and studio/field time; barriers to entry are low, so margins are thinner and more competitive. Audiobook production for hire sits between the models: a producer invests upfront in narration and editing, then earns back through the publisher's or platform's sales over time.

The investable prize is the catalog/subscription half — recurring revenue, low marginal cost, pricing power from license-clearance convenience — not the for-hire half, which is a commoditized service business.

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6. What drives demand

Recorded-music, podcast, and audiobook statistics are useful demand proxies, not measures of 512290 itself.

• Commercial footprint (background music). Demand tracks the number of open retail, hospitality, fitness, healthcare, and office locations and their foot traffic. Store openings and a healthy brick-and-mortar sector expand the subscriber base; closures shrink it. Businesses also use licensed audio specifically to avoid unauthorized music use.
• Content-production volume (production music). Every film, TV episode, streaming show, ad, game, and — increasingly — social-media video needs music. The streaming boom and the creator economy (YouTube, TikTok, Instagram) have driven demand for cheap, instantly cleared library music; by the company's own reporting, Epidemic Sound's catalog is used billions of times a day across YouTube and TikTok.[13]
• Recorded music and streaming (proxy). The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) reported total U.S. recorded-music revenue of $17.7 billion in 2024, of which streaming was $14.9 billion, and paid streaming subscriptions reached 100 million.[7]
• Podcast advertising. The Interactive Advertising Bureau (IAB) and PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) reported U.S. podcast ad revenue of ~$2.86 billion in 2025, up 17.6% — a tailwind for taped-programming and podcast-production businesses.[9]
• Audiobook consumption. Spoken-word recording rides the audiobook boom — U.S. sales up 13% in 2024 to $2.22 billion, with a majority of Americans now having listened to an audiobook.[8]
• Advertising and media budgets. Production-music demand is cyclical with ad and media-production spending; but squeezed budgets can actually help library music, since pre-cleared tracks are cheaper and faster than commissioning scores or licensing famous songs.[10]
• Corporate and event activity. Recording of conferences, seminars, hybrid meetings, corporate communications, archives, and localization tracks business activity and the events calendar.
• AI, both ways. Artificial intelligence (AI) can cut editing and localization costs and enable personalized audio, but it can also commoditize generic production, increase low-cost competition, and create new rights disputes.

The strongest demand outlook is in licensed business audio, creator services, and rights-compliant production workflows — not undifferentiated recording labor.

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7. Regulation

NAICS is a statistical classification, not an operating license — there is no permit required to run a background-music or recording business. The binding regime is copyright and music-licensing law.

A recording can contain two separate protected works: the musical composition (the song) and the sound recording (the specific recorded performance). Their rights, licenses, and royalty flows differ, and in-store playback, digital streaming, sync, podcast distribution, and archival use can each require different permissions.[28]

Key implications:

• Public-performance licensing. Any business that plays music publicly must be licensed through performing-rights organizations (PROs) — ASCAP, BMI, SESAC, and GMR — which license the public-performance right in musical works. Background-music providers add value precisely by bundling and clearing those rights so the store owner doesn't have to. ASCAP and BMI operate under long-standing federal (Department of Justice) consent decrees that shape how those licenses are priced.[29]
• Mechanical and digital royalties. The Music Modernization Act (MMA) of 2018 created a blanket mechanical license for interactive streaming/downloads and established the Mechanical Licensing Collective (MLC), which collects and distributes mechanical royalties to songwriters and publishers via digital service providers (DSPs). That blanket license does not cover most business-audio, broadcast, sync, or spoken-word uses.[30][31] Statutory royalties for the sound recording itself, from non-interactive digital performances, are collected and paid by SoundExchange; the MMA's AMP Act (Allocation for Music Producers) also created a pathway for producers and engineers to share in those.[30]
• Sync rights. Production-music licensing is fundamentally a private-contract business built on the synchronization right — the legal ability to pair a recording with visual media.
• Recording consent and privacy. Recording meetings, conferences, and calls creates consent exposure. Federal law provides a one-party-consent baseline, but several states require all-party consent; interstate recordings should be designed around the strictest applicable rule.[32]
• Broadcast rules. Broadcasters face Federal Communications Commission (FCC) licensing and ownership rules. A recording-service provider does not acquire spectrum merely by producing audio, but it can be affected when a customer or parent company owns broadcast licenses.[27]

The forward-looking wildcard is generative AI and digital replicas — AI-trained-on-music and AI-generated tracks and voices. The U.S. Copyright Office has recommended a federal digital-replica law, so investors should treat this as an unsettled regulatory risk rather than a settled rule; the outcome directly affects the value of both catalogs and human-performed recording services.[33] Contracts should address ownership, work-for-hire terms, talent releases, indemnities, privacy/security, takedown procedures, and chain of title for every licensed asset.

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8. Competitive dynamics and consolidation

The federal data show a moderately concentrated industry within its small universe. Concentration ratios (CRn — the combined revenue share of the n largest firms) run: the top 4 firms hold 57.6% of receipts, the top 8 hold 65.4%, the top 20 hold 76.2%, and the top 50 hold 86.2% — with a long tail of tiny operators below.[5] The HHI (Herfindahl-Hirschman Index, a standard concentration gauge that sums the squared market shares of all firms) is suppressed for this code, so a precise comparison with other industries isn't possible.

Competition and defensibility vary sharply by subsegment:

• Background music has consolidated around Mood Media, which rolled up Muzak, DMX and others and is now PE-owned — the classic buy-and-build of a recurring-subscription service. Enterprise background music is relatively defensible: customers value licensing compliance, uptime, remote management, integrations, and consistent service across locations.[14]
• Production music has split into two camps: major-label-owned libraries (APM, the Sony/Universal JV; Universal Production Music; Warner Chappell PM) versus disruptive independents (Epidemic Sound, Artlist) that pioneered the flat-fee, creator-friendly subscription and bypassed traditional PRO complexity. Here catalog breadth, search quality, metadata, and brand safety win.[11][17]
• Audiobook production is being rolled up by private equity (RBMedia) and integrated vertically by the platform giants (Amazon/Audible, Spotify) that both produce and distribute.[18]
• Generic recording and editing are highly price-sensitive and fragmented, with little defensibility.

The through-line is private capital assembling recurring-revenue and catalog assets, then holding them for yield or flipping them — RBMedia changed hands from KKR to H.I.G./Francisco Partners for over $1 billion in 2023.[18] The Mood Media and Stingray histories illustrate the same M&A logic.[15][16][19] PE is drawn to recurring contracts, fragmented suppliers, and operating leverage — but leverage magnifies the downside when advertising or store-location volumes fall.

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9. Risks

• AI disruption (the dominant risk). Generative AI threatens both halves of the business: AI narration can undercut human audiobook recording, and AI-generated tracks can flood the production-music market, compress prices, and potentially devalue existing catalogs. It could widen margins for library owners or commoditize the category. The legal status of AI training on copyrighted music, and of AI-cloned voices, is unresolved.
• Copyright/royalty cost inflation. Royalty and licensing costs can rise faster than the prices providers can pass to customers, squeezing the recurring-subscription model.
• Catalog and rights integrity. Loss of catalog rights, unclear ownership, or defective metadata can impair the core IP asset.
• Value migration to adjacent codes/platforms. Economics keep concentrating in streaming, publishing, and platform businesses classified outside 512290; the residual bucket risks being squeezed between the majors and the platforms.
• Cyclicality and footprint risk. Background-music revenue falls when retail/hospitality locations close; production-music and podcast/radio demand softens with advertising and media-production budgets.
• Customer concentration and platform dependence. Creator-facing firms depend on YouTube/TikTok policies and monetization; audiobook producers depend on Audible's and Spotify's terms and take-rates; podcast/radio firms depend on ad exchanges and distributors.
• Commoditization of for-hire services. Low barriers in event recording and narration keep margins thin for the small operators that make up most of the 733 establishments.[4]
• Privacy and consent. Recording-consent violations, data breaches, and unauthorized use of voices carry legal exposure.
• Private-equity leverage. Refinancing risk, covenant pressure, and limited transparency at PE-owned platforms amplify downside.
• Conglomerate/measurement risk. A public company may carry a recognizable audio brand yet have only a small economic connection to this code; and as a small, suppressed, residual category, 512290 is easy to misread. Investors must look through to the specific sub-segment and company.

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10. How to invest and the outlook

Public routes (indirect only). Because there is no listed pure-play, public investors get exposure as a minor component of larger companies. Separate the economic engines rather than buying a "brand":

• Commercial/business music: Stingray Group (TSX: RAY.A/RAY.B) is the closest operating comparable — examine recurring contract revenue, locations, renewal rates, royalty costs, equipment sales, and debt.[19]
• Podcast and audio advertising: PodcastOne (PODC), iHeartMedia (IHRT), Sirius XM (SIRI) — examine audience quality, ad fill, pricing (CPM), content costs, customer concentration, and cash flow.[20][21][22]
• Audiobooks/spoken word: Amazon (AMZN, via Audible) and Spotify (SPOT) — meaningful exposure but a tiny share of each parent.
• Music rights (adjacent): Universal Music (UMG), Warner Music (WMG), Sony (SONY) own production-music libraries; Reservoir Media (RSVR) is the nearest listed "own-a-catalog" proxy. This is rights exposure, not 512290 operating exposure — treat these as diversified media and music-rights holdings that merely touch the category.[17][23][24]

Private routes (where the real assets are). The specialist businesses are private and mostly PE-owned; access is via PE and growth-equity funds (Vector Capital owns Mood Media; H.I.G. and Francisco Partners own RBMedia; EQT and Blackstone back Epidemic Sound), fund secondaries, or — for accredited/institutional investors — direct deals in background-music service companies, audio-visual roll-ups, and production-music catalogs bought as income-yield assets.[12][14][18] Music-royalty funds are the closest packaged product, though most target publishing and masters rather than production libraries. Diligence should focus on: customer retention and contract duration; revenue after royalties and creator payments; utilization of staff, studios, and field equipment; catalog ownership, exclusivity, term, and geographic rights; advertising/platform concentration; working-capital and cash conversion; data-security and recording-consent controls; and debt maturity, covenant headroom, and sponsor support.

Outlook. The tailwinds are structural: continued growth in streaming and the creator economy sustaining demand for production/library music; double-digit audiobook growth supporting spoken-word recording; podcast advertising still growing at a double-digit rate; and a stable-to-recovering brick-and-mortar footprint underpinning background-music subscriptions.[7][8][9] The dominant swing factor is generative AI — a genuine two-sided risk that could widen catalog margins or gut pricing and human-service revenue, with the copyright rules still being written. Expect continued PE-led consolidation of recurring-revenue and catalog assets, valued increasingly as yield instruments. Net: an unglamorous, hard-to-access niche whose best assets — subscription bases and libraries — are quietly attractive, but whose measured "industry" is a small residual best understood by looking through to the specific sub-segment and owner. Public exposure will stay indirect; private transactions and rights investments offer more precise access, but with materially less disclosure and liquidity.

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Sources

1. U.S. Census Bureau. "2022 NAICS Definition: 512290 Other Sound Recording Industries" (scope, cross-references). 2022. https://www.census.gov/naics/?details=512290&input=512290&year=2022
2. Statistics Canada. "NAICS 2022 — 512290 Other Sound Recording Industries, illustrative examples." 2022. https://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p3VD.pl?Function=getVD&TVD=1369825&CVD=1370970&CPV=512290&CST=27012022&CLV=5&MLV=5
3. U.S. Census Bureau. "2022 Industry Survey: Sound Recording Industries" (2022 NAICS restructuring of record-production codes into 512250). 2022. https://bhs.econ.census.gov/ombpdfs2022/export/2022_IN-51224_su.pdf
4. U.S. Census Bureau. County Business Patterns: 2023, NAICS 512290 (establishments, employment, payroll; employer-establishment basis). 2025. https://www.census.gov/data/datasets/2023/econ/cbp/2023-cbp.html
5. U.S. Census Bureau. Economic Census — "EC2200SIZECONCEN: Concentration of Largest Firms, NAICS 512290" (receipts, firm count, CR4/CR8/CR20/CR50, HHI suppressed). 2022. https://data.census.gov/table/ECNSIZE2022.EC2200SIZECONCEN
6. U.S. Small Business Administration. "Table of Small Business Size Standards" (NAICS 512290, $22.5M receipts). 2023. https://www.sba.gov/document/support-table-size-standards
7. Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). "2024 Year-End Music Industry Revenue Report" ($17.7B total, $14.9B streaming, 100M paid subscriptions). 2025. https://www.riaa.com/reports/2024-year-end-music-industry-revenue-report-riaa/
8. Audio Publishers Association / Publishing Perspectives. "US Audiobook Sales Reach $2.22 Billion" (+13% YoY, 2024). 2025. https://publishingperspectives.com/2025/06/audio-publishers-association-us-audiobook-sales-reach-2-22-billion/
9. Interactive Advertising Bureau & PricewaterhouseCoopers. "IAB/PwC Internet Advertising Revenue Report: Full Year 2025" (U.S. podcast ad revenue ~$2.86B, +17.6%). 2026. https://www.iab.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/04/IAB_PwC_Internet_Ad_Revenue_Report_Full_Year_2025_April_2026.pdf
10. Synchtank. "Library Assistance: Production Music's $1bn (and Counting) Surge." 2023. https://www.synchtank.com/synchblog/library-assistance-production-musics-1bn-and-counting-surge
11. Music Business Worldwide. "Epidemic Sound's revenues jumped 29% to $181.6m in 2024, as EBITDA soared 150% YoY to $13.9m." 2025. https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/epidemic-sounds-revenues-jumped-29-to-181-6m-in-2024-as-ebitda-soared-150-yoy-to-13-9m/
12. EQT. "Epidemic Sound brings in EQT Growth and Blackstone Growth." 2021. https://eqtgroup.com/news/epidemic-sound-brings-in-eqt-growth-and-blackstone-growth-to-support-its-next-phase-of-development-2021-03-11
13. Epidemic Sound Group AB. "Annual Report 2024." 2025. https://corporate.epidemicsound.com/files/Main/21928/4132587/epidemic-sound-annual-report-2024.pdf
14. Mood Media. Company materials (500,000+ subscriber locations in 100+ countries; commercial-music platform). 2025. https://us.moodmedia.com/
15. Mood Media. "Vector Capital Completes Acquisition of Mood Media." 2021. https://us.moodmedia.com/company/news/vector-capital-completes-acquisition-of-mood-media/
16. Houlihan Lokey. "Mood Media — Vector Capital Transaction." 2025. https://hl.com/about-us/transactions/mood-media-vector-capital/
17. Wikipedia. "APM Music" (Sony/Universal joint venture; ~1.1M tracks) and "Mood Media" (Muzak acquired 2011, ~$345M). 2025. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APM_Music
18. Publishers Weekly. "With a Twist, Sale of RBmedia Completed" (H.I.G./Francisco Partners acquire RBMedia from KKR for >$1B; 66,000+ titles). 2023. https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/industry-deals/article/93205-with-a-twist-sale-of-rbmedia-completed.html
19. Stingray Group Inc. "Annual Report 2025" (broadcasting & commercial-music segment ~C$254.5M). 2025. https://corporate.stingray.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/stingray-annual-report-F2025-vf.pdf
20. PodcastOne, Inc. "Annual Report on Form 10-K, fiscal year ended March 31, 2025" (~$52.1M revenue). 2025. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1940177/000143774925022022/podc20250331_10k.htm
21. iHeartMedia, Inc. "Annual Report on Form 10-K, year ended December 31, 2025" (podcast revenue ~$563.7M). 2026. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1400891/000162828026025822/ihrt-20251231.htm
22. Sirius XM Holdings Inc. "Annual Report on Form 10-K, year ended December 31, 2025." 2026. https://investor.siriusxm.com/sec-filings/all-sec-filings/content/0000908937-26-000006/siri-20251231.htm
23. Universal Music Group N.V. "Full-Year 2025 Financial Results." 2026. https://www.universalmusic.com/universal-music-group-n-v-reports-financial-results-for-the-fourth-quarter-and-full-year-ended-december-31-2025/
24. Reservoir Media, Inc. Form 8-K, fiscal-2024 results (~$145M revenue); StockAnalysis market data (RSVR). 2024–2026. https://stockanalysis.com/stocks/rsvr/market-cap/
25. Soundtrack. "Music Streaming for Your Business" (formerly Soundtrack Your Brand). 2026. https://www.soundtrack.io/en/
26. Music Choice. "About Music Choice." 2026. https://www.musicchoice.com/about
27. Federal Communications Commission. "In re Audacy License, LLC" (Laurel Tree Opportunities ≥57% of Class A voting stock). 2024. https://docs.fcc.gov/public/attachments/FCC-24-94A1.pdf
28. U.S. Copyright Office. "What Musicians Should Know About Copyright" (composition vs. sound recording). 2026. https://www.copyright.gov/engage/musicians/
29. U.S. Copyright Office. "Issues Related to Performing Rights Organizations" (ASCAP/BMI consent decrees). 2025. https://www.copyright.gov/policy/pro-issues/
30. U.S. Copyright Office. "The Music Modernization Act" (MLC, blanket mechanical license, SoundExchange, AMP Act). 2018–2020. https://www.copyright.gov/music-modernization/
31. Mechanical Licensing Collective. "Home." 2026. https://www.themlc.com/
32. Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. "Introduction to the Reporters Recording Guide" (one-party vs. all-party consent). 2026. https://www.rcfp.org/introduction-to-reporters-recording-guide/
33. U.S. Copyright Office. "Copyright and Artificial Intelligence" (digital-replica recommendation). 2025. https://www.copyright.gov/ai/